Who Was a “Muslim”?
A Critical Examination of the Qur’an’s Expansive Definition of Islam
A common claim in Islamic theology is that Islam is not a new religion that began in the 7th century, but rather the final expression of the original faith of all prophets. According to this view, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other biblical figures were all “Muslims” in the essential sense because they submitted to the one God.
This interpretation draws heavily from Qur’anic verses such as:
“Indeed, the religion in the sight of Allah is Islam.”
— Qur’an 3:19
https://quran.com/3/19
From this perspective, Islam is defined broadly as submission to God, and the term Muslim refers to anyone who submits to divine will.
Therefore, the argument continues, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus were Muslims in essence, even though their religious laws differed.
At first glance, this explanation appears coherent. It presents Islam not as a break with earlier revelations but as their completion.
However, when examined historically and logically, the claim raises several difficult questions.
The central issue is whether the Qur’an is describing historical continuity or engaging in theological redefinition.
1. The Meaning of the Word “Muslim”
The Arabic word Muslim derives from the root s-l-m, meaning submission or surrender.
In a general linguistic sense, the word could describe anyone who submits to God.
However, language is shaped by historical usage.
In religious history, the word “Muslim” developed a specific meaning: a follower of the religious system associated with Muhammad and the Qur’an.
That system includes specific beliefs and practices, such as:
belief in the prophethood of Muhammad
acceptance of the Qur’an as revelation
observance of practices like prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage
These elements define Islam historically.
Therefore, when the Qur’an describes earlier figures as “Muslims,” it creates a tension between the historical meaning of the term and the broader theological definition.
2. Abraham and the Problem of Historical Identity
One of the most frequently cited examples is Abraham.
The Qur’an states:
“Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian, but he was a Muslim.”
— Qur’an 3:67
https://quran.com/3/67
From an Islamic perspective, this verse emphasizes Abraham’s pure monotheism.
However, historically Abraham lived roughly two millennia before the emergence of Islam.
He did not:
recite the Qur’an
follow Muhammad
practice the five pillars of Islam
Therefore, describing him as a Muslim requires redefining the word in a broader sense.
The issue is not whether Abraham worshiped one God. Both Jews and Christians also affirm that.
The issue is whether it is historically accurate to apply a religious label that emerged thousands of years later.
3. Moses and the Mosaic Covenant
The same issue appears with Moses.
Moses is the central figure in the Torah and the covenant between God and the Israelites.
The Mosaic covenant includes laws that are distinctive to Judaism, such as:
dietary laws
Sabbath observance
ritual purity regulations
These laws form the foundation of Jewish religious identity.
Yet Islamic theology often describes Moses as a Muslim because he submitted to God.
This interpretation again depends on expanding the definition of Islam beyond its historical meaning.
If submission alone defines Islam, then the term becomes so broad that it applies to many religious traditions, including Judaism and Christianity.
But Islam also insists that Jews and Christians are not Muslims unless they accept Muhammad’s message.
This creates a conceptual tension.
4. Jesus and the Question of Identity
The case of Jesus raises similar issues.
The Qur’an presents Jesus as a prophet who called people to worship God.
However, the Qur’an also rejects key elements of Christian belief, including:
the divinity of Jesus
the crucifixion
the doctrine of the Trinity
For example:
“They did not kill him, nor crucify him, but it was made to appear so to them.”
— Qur’an 4:157
https://quran.com/4/157
From the Qur’anic perspective, Christianity deviated from Jesus’ original message.
However, historically Jesus lived and taught within a Jewish context.
He did not:
identify as a Muslim
preach the Qur’an
teach Islamic legal practices
Calling Jesus a Muslim therefore requires the same theological reinterpretation applied to Abraham and Moses.
5. The Two Definitions of Islam
Islamic theology often resolves these tensions by introducing two different definitions of Islam.
Broad definition: submission to God
Narrow definition: adherence to the final revelation through Muhammad
Under the broad definition, all prophets were Muslims.
Under the narrow definition, people after Muhammad must follow Islam specifically.
This distinction allows Islamic theology to maintain continuity with earlier prophets while also asserting the finality of Muhammad’s message.
However, this approach raises an important question.
If the word “Muslim” can mean two different things depending on context, how can readers determine which meaning applies in a given passage?
6. The Problem of Retroactive Labeling
Historians often refer to this type of reinterpretation as retroactive labeling.
Retroactive labeling occurs when a later religious or ideological framework is applied to earlier historical figures.
For example:
Early Christians interpreted Hebrew scriptures as predicting Jesus.
Later religious movements have sometimes claimed Christian figures as members of their own traditions.
These reinterpretations often reflect the theological concerns of later communities rather than the self-understanding of the earlier figures themselves.
The Qur’an’s description of earlier prophets as Muslims fits this pattern.
It reinterprets earlier figures through the lens of Islamic theology.
7. The Qur’anic Emphasis on Continuity
Despite these historical questions, the Qur’an consistently emphasizes continuity between prophets.
For example:
“We believe in Allah and what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the tribes…”
— Qur’an 2:136
https://quran.com/2/136
And:
“For each community We have appointed a law and a way.”
— Qur’an 5:48
https://quran.com/5/48
These verses suggest that different communities received different legal systems while sharing the same underlying faith.
From a theological perspective, this framework allows Islam to present itself as the culmination of a single prophetic tradition.
However, this framework does not resolve the historical issue of whether earlier prophets would have recognized themselves as Muslims.
8. The Historical Development of Religious Identity
Religious identities typically develop gradually.
Judaism emerged through centuries of Israelite history.
Christianity developed from the early Jesus movement within Judaism.
Islam arose in the 7th century through Muhammad’s preaching in Arabia.
Each tradition developed its own scriptures, rituals, and theological frameworks.
From a historical perspective, these traditions are distinct.
The Qur’an’s claim of continuity therefore reflects a theological interpretation rather than a historical description.
9. The Logical Tension
The core logical tension can be summarized simply.
If “Muslim” means anyone who submits to God, then many believers across different traditions could be described as Muslims.
But Islam also maintains that:
Jews are not Muslims
Christians are not Muslims
unless they accept Muhammad.
This means the term operates differently depending on the argument being made.
When discussing prophets before Muhammad, the definition expands.
When discussing religious identity after Muhammad, the definition narrows.
This dual usage allows the claim of continuity to coexist with the claim of finality.
But it also creates ambiguity.
10. Theology Versus History
Ultimately, the debate about whether earlier prophets were Muslims depends on the difference between theological interpretation and historical description.
From a theological perspective, Islam views all prophets as part of a single divine plan.
From a historical perspective, the religious traditions associated with those prophets developed in different contexts and cannot easily be merged into one system.
Both perspectives exist, but they operate according to different assumptions.
Conclusion
The Qur’an presents Islam as the final stage of a continuous prophetic tradition stretching back to Abraham.
Within this framework, earlier prophets are described as Muslims because they submitted to God.
However, when examined historically, this claim depends on redefining the term “Muslim” in a broader theological sense rather than its historical meaning.
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus did not belong to the religious system that emerged in 7th-century Arabia.
They lived within different historical and religious contexts.
The Qur’an’s portrayal of them as Muslims therefore reflects a theological interpretation intended to emphasize continuity.
Whether one accepts that interpretation depends largely on one’s view of the Qur’an’s authority.
But from a historical perspective, describing earlier prophets as Muslims represents a retrospective theological framework rather than a straightforward historical description.
Based on Qur’an 3:19, 3:67, 2:136, 5:48 and historical analysis of religious identity development.
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